Having studied the works of many mystic
writers over the years, I thought I would make an effort here to try to compare
the different systems presented by each one. Even on a cursory glance, it is
clear that all are referring to a universal path, though each presents the
stages of development differently.
Evelyn Underhill
Let's start briefly with Evelyn Underhill's
model as presented in her work Mysticism. I have
been studying this book for many years, and it is indeed an impressive piece of
literature. Underhill is a clear authority on the Western mystical tradition,
and certainly writes from the perspective of direct experience.
Underhill's model of the spiritual life is
the following.
Awakening
Seeing the vanity of material life, the
student begins the slow transformation of their values toward those of the
spirit. This initial shift is the authentic meaning of the term
"conversion" in Christian teaching.
Purgation
The shift from a materialistic focus to an
inner focus is often difficult, and involves many personal turmoils and
conflicts. In addition, the process of reorienting one's focus involves putting
one's psyche in order, and addressing the dysfunctions of the mind.
Illumination
Following the completion of the purgative
life, Underhill describes the beginning of the contemplative life. Here, one
has gained control of one's faculties, and begins to experience true peace,
joy, and rest. This stage is accompanied with the experiences of "inner
quiet" and meditation.
Dark Night of the Soul
The advanced mystic, according to Underhill,
eventually outgrows the state of quiet restfulness enjoyed in the state of
illumination, and hungers for union or completion. As the mystic reaches this
state, their former consolations turn into new aridities and trials. All their
"progress" turns to naught, like Job sitting on the ash heap, and the
mystic is often left in a state of uncertainty and limbo for many years.
Union
The final stage of the mystic life, the rose,
the state of completion and self-perfection. Underhill uses the Christian
models of "deification" and the "spiritual marriage" to
describe the state.
As part of her book, Underhill describes the
stages of the contemplative life proper, which she sees as intrinsically tied
to the above.
Recollection
The beginning stages of concentrating the
mind, applying and sustaining the attention.
Quiet
The state in which the discursive mind is
suspended, and the mystic resides in a state of quiet peacefulness.
Contemplation
The state of absorption in which the mystic
is temporary elevated above himself.
Underhill's model is an attempted synthesis
of the many and conflicting models of the spiritual life presented throughout
the Western tradition. Underhill herself remarks on the difficulty of coming to
a coherent system, as different writers will often use the same word (let us
take for example "contemplation") to describe separate experiences.
Throughout her text, Underhill also alludes to many of the experiences of the
mystics, examining topics such as ecstasy, vision, voices, automatic writing,
and transport.
Eastern Christians
Let's turn now to the Eastern Christian
tradition, where their model shares much in common with the above. For sources
let us use the Philokalia,
the Desert Fathers, and John Climacus.
Catharsis
The purification of the mind and emotions.
Here, we find an analogue with the "purgation" stage above.
Theoria
The stage of "illumination" or
"vision" of God. Here, we find the equivalent of the same stage
above.
Theosis
Here the Greek fathers do not shy away from
the language of (literal) "divinization" or "deification."
Here would be the equivalent of "union" above. The Greek fathers were
not averse to invoking the line, "God became man that man might become
god."
The Eastern Christian tradition also often
encompasses the following very interesting concepts, which I wanted to include
here.
Dispassion (apatheia), a state in which one is
above slavery to the passions.
The heart (kardia), which we find pertinent in
examining the "spiritual heart" in Eastern traditions.
Watchfulness (nepsis), which we
find an analogue to in mindfulness (sati) in the East.
Discursive thought (dianoia), which is
overcome in the process of the contemplative life.
Discrimination (diakrisis), a
faculty in which one discerns spiritual knowledge from worldly knowledge,
discerns teachers, and so on.
Stillness (hesychia), a state of quiet
stillness.
Repentance (metanoia), the transformation of the
mind and emotions we might equate with "purgation."
Platonism
One interesting thing I found in reading the Philokalia was
the ready integration of Platonism into it. Socrates and Plato, while
pre-Christian pagan philosophers, were seen as following a path in accord with
the Christian one.
The Greek fathers use Plato's model of the
psyche as presented in the Republic. In this
text, Socrates explains the psyche as being composed of three faculties:
reason, anger, and passion. He then compares these three faculties to three
types of people in the city-state: the philosophers, soldiers, and craftsmen.
The Republic describes
a "just" city-state, in which the philosophers rule with the aid of
the soldiers, while the craftsmen work. Analogously, a "just" psyche
has reason rule with the aid of anger, with the passions subject to them. The
Kallipolis (beautiful city) is thus a parable for the psyche of the
philosopher, the just man. To drive his point home, Plato then compares the
Kallipolis to unjust city-states. For Plato, these would be the states of
ordinary men who are not philosophers: "city-states" in which anger
or the passions rule over the psyche.
The Greek fathers use this Platonic teaching
in their description of the spiritual life, to explain the transformation that
takes place in the early stages.
Teresa of Avila
Let's turn to Spain now, and one of the great
texts of mysticism, Teresa of Avila's Inner Castle.
In this text, Teresa compares the soul of man
to a castle (or mansion) with seven rooms, each stage representing deepening
states of union with God.
I was first acquainted with this text by
Jeffrey Brooks, who alluded to the seven stages as possible corollaries with
the eight stages of contemplation described in Buddhism. I thought this was an
interesting idea at the time, although after reading Teresa's work years later
I found her stages are not the same.
I will not claim the same expertise with this
work as I will with the above, as I have not spent years poring over it in the
same capacity, but here are Teresa's stages as I understand them.
The First Mansion
The turn from worldliness to a life in the
spirit; turning away from materialism and the passions toward the inner life.
The Second Mansion
The inner turmoil experienced by those who
undergo this shift; the "war" in the psyche between the newly forming
spiritual self and the recalcitrant physical self.
The Third Mansion
The next stage of the above process of going
within. Here, one begins slowly to recollect oneself; one develops the virtues;
though one still does not receive spiritual consolations.
The Fourth Mansion
Here is where the contemplative life proper
would be said to begin; self-arising joy and the prayer of quiet emerge. The
discursive mind is subdued.
The Fifth Mansion
This mansion seems to equate with the state
of "contemplation" or "absorption" described above.
The Sixth Mansion
Here, Teresa of Avila describes many of the
trials experienced by those in the inner life, examines many of the phenomena
that might be attributed to the supernatural (including voices and visions),
and the preparation for the spiritual marriage.
The Seventh Mansion
Here, Teresa of Avila describes what would be
equated with the "unitive life," the "spiritual marriage"
of the soul with God.
If we look at Teresa's mansions, they
correlate with our stages of the mystic life above. Mansions one to three
correspond with purgation; four to five with illumination; and six to seven
with union.
One sympathy I have grown for Teresa's
writing over the years is her inseparability of the personal life from the
contemplative life. Teresa sees trials as an intrinsic part of one's growth
toward the sacred; since one is in the world, one can only understand
adversities as tests sent by God to help in the path to perfection.
Patanjali
Let's turn to India, and to another great
text of mystical literature, The Yoga Sutras of
Patanjali.
For those more familiar with Buddhism,
Patanjali lays out a similar "eightfold path" which takes one through
the quest for liberation. Patanjali has a unique, aphoristic style; The Yoga Sutras are
terse, dense lines which one can take a long time to unpack and discern fully.
At the same time, the careful word choice and at times multi-meaning nature of
the words produce a sublime formulation of the spiritual path.
Patanjali's stages are the following. Similar
to the Greek above, I will give you the Sanskrit, then an English translation.
1. Yamas - Five ethical rules: ahimsa
(nonviolence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacarya
(chastity), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness).
2. Niyama - Five practices: shaucha
(purity), santosha (contentment), tapas (austerity), svadhyaya
(self-examination), and ishvarapranidhana (contemplation of God).
3. Asana - Posture; the physical
exercises we associate with "Yoga" today in the west.
4. Pranayama - Breath control.
5. Pratyahara - Introversion;
withdrawing the senses from external objects.
6. Dharana - Concentration; applying
and sustaining the attention; recollection.
7. Dhyana - Meditation; corollaries to
the state of quiet or the suppression of the discursive mind examined above.
8. Samadhi - The religious experience;
corollaries to the state of contemplation or absorption examined above.
Particular emphasis here might be given to
the final three limbs of Patanjali: dharana, dhyana, and samadhi, which we see
are equivalents of the stages described by Underhill earlier.
Buddhism
Let's turn to Buddhism now, and the
description of the contemplative life as described by the jhanas.
For those unfamiliar, the Noble Eightfold
Path of Buddhism reaches its completion in the seventh fold (sati), which we
may translate as meditation or mindfulness, and the eighth fold (samadhi),
which we may translate as the religious experience.
The Buddhist sutras describe meditators as
traversing the four jhanas, which are the following. Similar to the above,
below I will give you the Pali, followed by an English translation.
The First Jhana
Vitarka (applied attention), vicara
(sustained attention), sukha (joy), piti (bliss), and ekagatta (one-pointedness).
The Second Jhana
Sukha (joy), piti (bliss), ekagatta
(one-pointedness), passaddhi (tranquility), and avitakka ca aicara (no applied
or sustained attention). *Tranquility is understood as the stilling of the
mind.
The Third Jhana
Sukha (joy), piti (bliss), ekagatta
(one-pointedness), passaddhi (tranquility), and upekkha (equanimity).
*Equanimity is understood as a higher state of stillness, accompanied by
emotional equilibrium or detachment.
The Fourth Jhana
Piti (bliss), ekagatta (one-pointedness),
passaddhi (tranquility), upekkha (equanimity), asukha ca adukkha (no pleasure
and no pain). *No pleasure and no pain is often associated with the state of
absorption or contemplation.
From here there is oftentimes a transitional
state, with the same attributes of the fourth jhana accompanied by the new
traits avedana (no sense experience) and viriya (energy).
This transitional state then shifts into what
we in modern times would equate with the out-of-body experience or astral
projection. Nirvana would be the equivalent of having traversed all the higher
states of the out-of-body experience.
Charismatic Phenomena
One topic which comes up in mystic literature
from time to time, but is rarely examined comprehensively, is charismatic phenomena.
We see these mentioned in passing in the writings of Christian mystics. In
Oriental religions, these are sometimes called the "nimitta" (signs)
of contemplatives.
Generally, the appearance of these signs is
seen as evidence of progress in the spiritual life. Let us briefly look at
three of these as an example, first using the non-secular model, then looking
at them with the secular model.
The Inner Sound
Many mystics or meditators report hearing a
strange, high frequently whistling sound which persists with them throughout
the day. This charism is usually associated with the experience of stilling the
mind. From a religious perspective, this sound would be a sign of one
"tuning in" one's frequency to a closer alignment with the higher planes.
The Spiritual Heart
There are many examples in hagiography (art
of the saints or holy people) of an enflamed, warm, or open heart; we also find
references to a sensation in the heart, or inner heat, in mystic writings. From
a religious perspective, this sensation represents progress; the opening of or
the movement of energy through the "spiritual heart." The Eastern
tradition would see this as the opening of the heart chakra.
Vibrations
Throughout mystic literature we see
references to this; of waves of energy or vibrations flowing through the body.
From a religious perspective, this experience would be associated with the
sensation of the aura, the meridians, or the "holy wounds" of Christ.
Feeling and deepening these vibrations is often associated with the out-of-body
experience in more modern literature (thinking of Bob Monroe here).
Now let's look at these same experiences from
the secular model. With the secular perspective, these "signs" are
not signs at all. They are merely peculiar sensations experienced due to a
deepening of awareness or sensitivity that naturally happens for a mystic.
1. The first could be simply tinnitus, which
the average person does not hear due to the distractions of the discursive
mind.
2. The second could just be an anomalous heat
in the chest, not a sign of anything in particular.
3. The vibrations could merely be the feeling
of the nervous system, which is felt in a state of deep relaxation.
There are two additional charismatic
phenomena I wanted to look at.
Spiritual Tears
Often associated with the experience of the
opening of the heart, unprovoked tears are a common theme in religious
literature. Although presumably a universal experience of mystics, references
to them seem to be exclusive to Christian literature. This is something I have
become suspicious of as time has gone on: perhaps there is a "taboo"
toward describing this personal side of the spiritual life in the East. These
tears are usually associated with personal development, metanoia, and the
accessing of the higher emotions.
Voices
Mystic literature is often filled with
references to an inner "voice" causing the first call to break from
worldly life and begin the spiritual life. Mystics describe these inner
communications as a key part of their guidance on the path to freedom.
Underhill says the more physical these voices are the less reliable they are.
Socrates' trial contains an interesting reference to these sorts of voices; his
"daimonion" is quiet during the Apology, which he
takes as an approval for his conduct throughout it. These voices are
ironically both the most reliable source of knowledge for the mystic while also
being the most dubious. Mystics in the "unitive life" seem to rely on
these voices almost exclusively for guidance, while those in the early stages
of the inner life find it too easy to conflate these "communications"
with one's own self-will or preferences.
Comparing the Different Models
In the past I have read commenters describe
the chief distinction in mystic writing as being between
"theological" (using God-based language) and
"non-theological" (using non-God based language), although as I have
studied these writers more over the years I have come to the conclusion that
this difference is very superficial.
I personally believe now that the most
important difference between mystic writers is whether they emphasize
"personal experience" or the "contemplative life" as their
preferred path to spiritual growth. While both are necessary, in particular mystics
there is often a preference for the one over the other.
If you like, we might see it as a spectrum,
with the one side preferring personal experience, and the other the
contemplative life.
<--------------------------------------------------------------------------->
Personal experience
Contemplative life
In the past, I admit a greater preference for
those writers on the right side of this spectrum, who discount the personal
dimension of the mystic's quest. This explains my greater interest in the
writers of the Buddhist or Hindu traditions in the beginning. However, as the
years have gone by, I have shifted to the opposite direction, and have
developed a greater preference for Christian mystics like Teresa of Avila or
John of the Cross. These writers are different from Eastern ones as they see
personal adversities as trials given to them to facilitate spiritual growth.
I will leave you with a final piece on this
note; a passage from Underhill's book in which she describes an experience of
Henry Suso: an extreme "trial" he underwent during his dark night of
the soul. Having experienced such extreme ironies like the below, I have a
great sympathy for this tale. If a mystic is here in the physical, it follows
experiences here would facilitate one's progress in the spirit. The act of
personal heroism testifies to Suso's greatness more than any rapture or vision.
...[A] malicious woman accused him [a Dominican friar] of being the father of her child, and succeeded for the time in entirely destroying his reputation. “And the scandal was all the greater ... because the rumour of that brother’s sanctity had spread so far.”Poor Suso was utterly crushed by this calumny, “wounded to the depths of his heart.” “Lord, Lord!” he cried, “every day of my life I have worshipped Thy holy Name in many places, and have helped to cause it to be loved and honoured by many men: and now Thou wouldst drag my name through the mud!”When the scandal was at its height, a woman of the neighbourhood came to him in secret; and offered to destroy the child which was the cause of this gossip, in order that the tale might be more quickly forgotten and his reputation restored. She said further that unless the baby were somehow disposed of, he would certainly be forced by public opinion to accept it, and provide for its upbringing.Suso, writhing as he was under the contempt of the whole neighbourhood, the apparent ruin of his career—knowing, too, that this slander of one of their leaders must gravely injure the reputation of the Friends of God—was able to meet the temptation with a noble expression of trust. “I have confidence in the God of Heaven, Who is rich, and Who has given me until now all that which was needful unto me. He will help me to keep, if need be, another beside myself.” And then he said to his temptress, “Go, fetch the little child that I may see it.”“And when he had the baby, he put it on his knees and looked at it: and the baby began to smile at him. And sighing deeply, he said, ‘Could I kill a pretty baby that smiled at me? No, no, I had rather suffer every trial that could come upon me!” And turning his face to the unfortunate little creature, he said to it, ‘Oh my poor, poor little one! Thou art but an unhappy orphan, for thy unnatural father hath denied thee, thy wicked mother would cast thee off, as one casts off a little dog that has ceased to please! The providence of God hath given thee to me, in order that I may be thy father. ... Thou shalt be my son, and the child of the good God; and as long as heaven gives me a mouthful, I shall share it with thee, for the greater glory of God ... my darling son!’”The story goes on: “And when the hard-hearted woman who had wished to kill the little one saw these tears, when she heard these tender words, she was greatly moved: and her heart was filled with pity, and she too began to weep and cry aloud. ... And he enjoined the woman to care for [the child] well at his expense.”Small wonder that after this heroic act of charity Suso’s reputation went from bad to worse; that even his dearest friends forsook him, and he narrowly escaped expulsion from the religious life. His torments and miseries, his fears for the future, continued to grow until they at last came to their term in a sort of mental crisis.
